7.39+Roots+of+Western+Civ.



media type="custom" key="29528317" align="right" = Describe the influence of Julius Caesar and Augustus in Rome's transition from a republic to an empire and explain the reasons for the growth and long life of the Roman Empire. =

** Topics on the page **

 * The Transition from a Republic to an Empire **
 * A. Military organization, tactics, and conquests; and decentralized administration **
 * B. Purpose and function of taxes **
 * C. Promotion of economic growth through the use of a standard currency, road construction, and the protection of trade routes **
 * D. Benefits of Pax Romana **
 * ** Women in Ancient Rome **
 * ** Aurelia Cotta **
 * ** Octavia **
 * ** Helena **

Roman Empire TimelineGo to Roman Emperors for images and a timeline of rulers from Caesar (44 BCE) to Justinian (527-565 CE).

http://www.ushistory.org/civ/6a.asp Article on Roman Republic.

Republic to Empire, from PBS

Here is a description of Julius Caesar's major accomplishments: [|Julius Caesar], and here is one for [|Augustus].

Here is a Lesson Plan for Augustus that was put together by the Stanford History Education Group.


 * Getting to Know the Emperors of Rome**

Click [|here] for a written description of Caesar's assassination by the historian Plutarch. media type="youtube" key="YR-Nhw1seJg" width="560" height="315" align="right"
 * [|Rome Reborn 2.2: A Tour of Ancient Rome in 320 CE]
 * [|Emperor of Rome Game] from PBS allows you to be the leader of the Empire of Rome. You have three choices one of them being Augustus.

This [|video] by John Green explains exactly when the Roman Republic became the Roman Empire.
 * Julius Caesar and Augustus helped turn the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire**
 * [|Here], PBS gives a quick explanation of Julius Ceasar and Augustus' roles in transitioning the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire

A. Military organization, tactics and conquests; and decentralized administration
=== Military Organization **: The [|Roman Legion] was generally comprised of between 4,000-6,000 men in various levels of infantry, with 4,200 apparently being the optimal number. For more information on military tactics, scroll down to additional information below. ** ===


 * ==== Decentralized Administration : Rome was ruled during this era as a decentralized administration. ====
 * ====Decentralized administrations cannot rely on force or a central authority. ====
 * ====The senate was filled by patricians (the elite members of society) and consisted of 300 seats. ====
 * ====Roman citizens were given more control of their own property as well, which allowed for more freedom within the empire. ====
 * ====The senate was filled by patricians (the elite members of society) and consisted of 300 seats. ====
 * ====Roman citizens were given more control of their own property as well, which allowed for more freedom within the empire. ====
 * ====Roman citizens were given more control of their own property as well, which allowed for more freedom within the empire. ====

[[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Augusto_30aC_-_6dC_55%25CS_jpg.JPG width="640" height="442" align="right" caption="The Roman Empire under Augustus Caesar (31 BC - AD 6)"]]
For more information on [|decentralization].

B. The purpose and function of taxes
**Taxes** **:** The Roman Empire taxed the people under its control, and the taxes fell most heavily on conquered peoples in the empire. Despite the punitive tax levied on subjugated people throught the Empire, Rome did not administer these conquered groups directly, but rather provided a generous degree of autonomy in their local regions.
 * Roman citizens did not have to pay the individual or head tax required of each subject of the empire, and the empire exempted Italian land from tribute.
 * Roman citizens did, however, have to pay the 5 percent inheritance tax, a 1 percent sales tax, a customs or import duty, and a tax on freed slaves.
 * Local magistrates, imperial officials, and professional tax collectors were all employed to gather taxes, and the imperial census became an important tool to identify potential taxpayers.
 * Total taxes amounted to about 10 percent of the empire’s gross national product. That percentage of tax may seem low by modern standards, but the imperial government provided minimal services.
 * For provincials who could barely make a living, paying 10 percent of their income to the government was a considerable burden.
 * Here is a link that further explains [|Roman taxes].


 * Social Order : ** The [|social order] in the Roman Empire played a critical role in the political and economic structure. The social order was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and freedom.

[|Here] is a link on LGBT rights issues during the Roman Empire.

=
[|Here] is a sample lesson plan on how to introduce slavery in the Roman empire to grades 6-12===== Here is a sample lesson plan about the **Multicultural** Roman Empire from the American Institutes for Research.

C. The promotion of economic growth through the use of a standard currency, road construction, and the protection of trade routes


For a video resource, see [|Rome: Engineering an Empire] on YouTube

[|Rome 320 AD] is a phone and tablet app that shows everyday life Roman life in 3-D animation.


 * Standard Currency :** Merchants throughout the empire and as far away as India used Roman coins, but the monetary system primarily served as a way for the emperors to pay their troops because the soldiers expected cash.
 * When an emperor had insufficient income, he was forced to raise taxes, seize property, or, as a final measure, melt down existing coins and mint new ones that weighed less or contained smaller amounts of precious metals.
 * Silver coins were a basic medium of exchange during the empire, and one of the major Roman coins, a // denarius // (plural, // denarii // ), equaled four of the smaller silver coins called sesterces.
 * During the reign of Augustus, a silver denarius weighed 5.7 gm (.20 oz) and was 99 percent pure. By ad 193 it had dropped to 4.3 gm (. 15 oz) and was only 70 percent pure. The deficit spending of later emperors nearly halved the silver value of the coinage.

**Road Construction** **:** "All roads lead to Rome"... The Romans, for military, commercial and political reasons, became adept at constructing roads, which they called 'viae' (plural of singular via).
 * It means "to go" with the sense of transporting in a vehicle. Viae were always intended primarily as carriage roads, the means of carrying material from one location to another.
 * At its peak, the Roman road system spanned 53,000 miles and contained about 372 links. There is more on Roman roads at the bottom of the page.
 * [|8 Ways Roads Helped Rome Rule the Ancient World].

**Protection of trade routes** **:** Trade was vital to Ancient Rome. The empire cost a vast sum of money to run and trade brought in much of that money.
 * The population of the city of Rome was one million and such a vast population required all manner of things brought back via trade. The Roman Empire was crisscrossed with trade routes.
 * There were sea routes that covered the Mediterranean and Black Seas and numerous land routes using the roads built by the Romans.
 * Trade and moving the Roman Army around were the two principle reasons for building roads. For more on trade routes, see the bottom of the page.

D. The benefits of Pax Romana
Augustus (Octavian), the first Roman emperor, ruled for 45 years. It was during the reign of Augustus that people became accustomed to being ruled by one leader. Rome went on to greatness under the Empire, but the Roman Republic was no more. For 45 years, Rome was at peace. Many of the Romans' incredible buildings and engineering projects were constructed during this period of relative peace, culture and literature flourished, and much of Greek culture was adopted during this period.

This period is the beginning of the [|Pax Romana, or Roman Peace], although the name is a bit misleading.
 * The Romans continued to expand their empire during this period, and they did not always do so peacefully. Things were not always peaceful in the city of Rome.
 * During the age of Pax Romana, Augustus created reforms aimed at turning Rome into a world capital. Through his reforms, Agustus sought to teach Romans to link their destiny with the destiny of mankind. Romans, he believed, were the chosen people to bring peace and stability to a violent changing world.
 * Roman civilization during Pax Romana held the belief that man had the ability to provide the good life for himself and others. That duty extended to all citizens of the Roman Empire, not just to those within the city of Rome.
 * Rome did not always have the best leadership. Some emperors were very cruel. Some were insane. But the empire continued to be stable. For some 200 years, the Roman Empire was united.


 * Go here for a [|video overview of the Pax Romana] from Education Portal.
 * Go here for a [|video on the life of a Roman teenager] in 73 AD.

Pax Romana was a period of great 'peace' and mobility within the Roman Empire, allowing for the rise of Christianity to take place. A combination of the vast amount of cultures within the empire, the legendary travel conditions of the Roman roads, and stability of Pax Romana all fostered the growth of Christianity.

The following links are useful primary sources regarding Augustus and the Pax Romana:
 * [|The Lives of the Caesars]
 * [|On the City of Rome]
 * [|Vespasian Emperor]

[[image:womens history.jpg]]Women in Ancient Rome

 * See also Standard 7.37 for more on women's history**

**Aurelia Cotta** **Octavia** **Helena**
 * Look at [|Culture and Women] to see how gender roles changed during the Pax Romana as well as some interesting cultural impacts during this time period.
 * If you are curious about women's roles as far as workplace, politics, and power during the first century of the Roman Empire click [|here].
 * Powerful Women in Ancient Rome include:
 * One of the most well-known names of Roman history is Julius Caesar, and the powerful Aurelia Cotta was his mother.
 * Cotta lived from 120 to 54 BC and raised the young Julius alongside his two sisters, both called Julia. Not one to stand back and watch meekly,
 * Cotta is famous for intervening when a dictator called Sulla ordered for Julius to be executed.
 * Cotta led a petition against her son's execution and helped to save his life. (Retrieved from http://www.historychannel.com.au/articles/powerful-women-of-ancient-rome/ , Feb, 5th, 2017)
 * Commonly known as Octavia the Younger to differentiate her from older counterparts, Octavia was an important 'background figure' in Roman politics.
 * Although Julius Caesar's great-niece, Octavia is most well known for her marriage to Mark Antony, a powerful political player.
 * Mark Antony famously left her for Cleopatra, but Octavia, ever loyal, ended up caring for Antony and Cleopatra's children after they passed away.
 * She is now considered to be one of Ancient Rome's great role models. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(Retrieved from http://www.historychannel.com.au/articles/powerful-women-of-ancient-rome/ ,<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Feb, 5th, 2017
 * Another Ancient Roman role model, Helena was the mother of Constantine (the first Christian emperor) and widely regarded as a devout, moralistic woman or 'saint'.
 * Like her son, she thoroughly explored her faith and is believed to have found religious relics in Jerusalem such as the 'True Cross'. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(Retrieved from http://www.historychannel.com.au/articles/powerful-women-of-ancient-rome/ ,<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Feb, 5th, 2017)

Military Tactics of the Roman Legion
Under this system, the Legion was made of the Maniple formation, which generally consisted of 2 centuries of men. The centuries were organized as a base unit of 60 men, but these numbers fluctuated depending upon the type of infantry. Each century of the Maniple was under the command of a centurion (with the unit on the right under the command of the senior centurion) who was assisted by an optio, and other 'enlisted officers' as detailed in the Imperial system. The cavalry of the Republican legion was limited to a rather small force by comparison to the infantry. The 200-300 man cavalry wings were organized in decuriae of 10 men each under the command of a decurion. Three units of decuriae were organized together as a turma consisting of 30 men, and the senior decurion of the three had total command. In addition to the traditional legions, the Roman Empire fielded [|Auxilia], or non-Roman soldiers. These units came from across the empire and would fight alongside the legions. media type="youtube" key="Rcbedan5R1s" width="560" height="315"


 * === Tactics and Conquests: ===
 * **Shield to Shield:** In battle, the Roman soldiers would stand with the shields in front side by side, and in the rows behind, with the shields on top of the heads of the ones in front. It is called the testudo formation. It made an advancing group of Romans a giant tortoise, and less vulnerable to artillery fire.
 * **Battle Readiness:** During a fierce battle, a soldier can get easily get tired. The Romans solved this. A soldier would only be at the front of a fighting column for fifteen minutes, then move to the back. This was invaluable to the soldiers.
 * **Starvation:** Starving a town under siege into submission was a favorite of the Romans. The town would be surrounded, plastered with artillery, and then the Romans would wait for the supplies to run out. In the event that this tactic took too long, siege towers were built. These allowed the Roman soldiers to scale the walls of a town easily. Together the two tactics were excessively effective.
 * **Training:** Training was the most important tactic to the Roman Army. The Romans were trained to fight hard and to improvise. Every soldier was trained as an engineer: they could make anything out of anything.
 * [[image:Multimedia.png]]For an explanation and history on the punishment of **decimation**, check out this [|site]!

=== During the republic, the general who recruited an army often armed and paid the soldiers. Augustus wanted to ensure that in the future no rebellious general could threaten the regime, so he established a central military treasury. He set funds aside for the legionaries. When they retired, they received a grant to purchase a plot of land to support their families. Augustus also tried to make his troops more professional by instituting a standard legionary command structure, system of rank, and rate of pay. Roman soldiers swore an annual oath of loyalty to <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px;"> the emperor. These legionaries also received their pay, bonuses, and pensions from the emperor, so they were not often tempted to follow a renegade commander. Once Augustus had defeated Mark Antony, he began to reduce the empire’s remaining military forces from 60 legions to 28. He then had to provide land for over 100,000 men, which was the traditional form of pension. Augustus knew that earlier seizures of land had led to insurrections, so he used the spoils of his successful Egyptian campaign against Antony and Cleopatra to purchase property for some soldiers. He settled others in 40 new colonies around the Mediterranean. These colonies provided additional security in the provinces, and eventually became important centers for spreading the Roman way of life. Augustus founded the cities of [|Turin] (Italy), [|Barcelona] (Spain), [|Nimes] (France), [|Trier] (Germany), [|Tangier] (Morocco) and [|Beirut] (Lebanon). ===

[|Click here] for a further explanation of what life was like in the Roman Legions.

Roman Roads
=== Roman roads vary from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The builders aimed at directional straightness. Many long sections are ruler-straight, but it should not be thought that all of them were. The Roman emphasis on constructing straight roads often resulted in steep grades relatively impractical for most economic traffic: over the years the Romans themselves realized it and built longer, but more manageable, alternatives to existing roads. A milestone, or miliarium, was a circular column on a solid rectangular base, set two feet into the ground, standing several feet high, 20" in diameter, weighing about 2 tons. At the base was inscribed the number of the mile relative to the road it was on. In a panel at eye-height was the distance to the forum at Rome and various other information about the officials who made or repaired the road and when. The Roman roads were essential for the growth of their empire, by enabling them to move armies speedily and by sustaining land transport for Roman mercantilism. Roman roads were designed that way to hinder provinces organizing resistance against the Empire. ===

Trade in the Roman Empire
=== The most important port was Ostia as it was the nearest major port to Rome itself. Ostia was situated at the mouth of the River Tiber and was only 15 miles from Rome. Many ships traveled between Ostia and the major North African city of Carthage, a journey that took between three and five days. Ships also arrived from Spain and France at Ostia. All their goods could be quickly moved to Rome itself as they were taken in barges to the city up the River Tiber after slaves had transferred the products from the merchant ships to the barges. Ironically, Ostia was to play a major part in the downfall of Rome when Alaric the Goth captured Ostia in AD 409 knowing that this would starve Rome of much-needed food. The Romans did what they could to make sea journeys safe - lighthouses were built as were safe harbors and docks. The Roman Navy did what it could to make the Mediterranean Sea safe from pirates. The Romans made trade as easy as possible. There was only one currency used and there were no complicating customs dues. Trade was also encouraged by many years of peace within the Empire. Trade was vital to the success of the Empire. When the Empire collapsed, trade throughout the lands that had once made up the Roman Empire, also collapsed. The Mediterranean Sea became a dangerous place for merchants as there were no powers to control the activities of pirates who marauded as far north as the English Channel. ===

Sources:
__ [] __ http://www.unrv.com/military/organization-roman-republican-legion.php http://www.roman-empire.net/army/tactics.html http://www.richeast.org/htwm/Greeks/Romans/weapons/weapons.html http://www.austincelts.org/festival/images/romans.jpg http://www.legionsix.org/contact1.jpg http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741502785_3/Roman_Empire.html http://www.crystalinks.com/romeroads.html http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancient_rome_and_trade.htm http://transportarchaeology.files.wordpress.com/2006/10/via-amerina_falerii-novi_stort_tilblog.jpg http://artemis.austincollege.edu/acad/history/jmoore/RomanTradeRoutesMap.jpeg http://rome.mrdonn.org/paxromana.html http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wenceslas_Hollar_-_A_testudo.jpg [] []