WH+I+33+Sci.+Rev

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= = =**Summarize how the Scientific Revolution and the scientific method led to new theories of the universe and describe the accomplishments of leading figures of the Scientific Revolution, including Bacon, Copernicus, Descartes, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton.**=

Topics on the Page

 * ** The Scientific Revolution **
 * **Historical Biography Pages for Arabic and Islamic Mathematicians and Scientists**
 * ** The Scientific Method **
 * ** Leading Figures of the Scientific Revolution **
 * ** Francis Bacon **
 * ** Nicolas Copernicus **
 * ** Rene Descartes **
 * ** Galileo Galilei **
 * ** Johannes Kepler **
 * ** Sir Issac Newton **
 * ** Women of the Scientific Revolution **
 * Margaret Cavendish
 * Maria Winkelmann
 * Maria Sibylla Merian
 * Gabrielle Emile du Chatelet
 * ** Women in Science in 19th and 20th Centuries **
 * Historical Biography page for Rosalind Franklin, Molecular Biologist
 * Biography pages for Grace Hopper, Elizabeth and Emily Blackwell, Helen Keller, Ada Lovelace, Hedy Lamarr, Mary Anning, Margaret Sanger and Beatrice Potter

//**Focus Question: What was the Scientific Revolution, the scientific method and the accomplishments of the leading figures of the Scientific Revolution?**//
Watch this video for an introduction to the Scientific Revolution!

See the app [|Shout Science!] for a graphic history of the Scientific Revolution focusing on three scientists: Maria Sibylla Merian, James Hutton, Anton van Leeuwenhoek.

The Scientific Revolution (1550 to 1700)
The **Scientific Revolution** was born in Europe in the 1500s, in context of the Middle Ages.
 * It was a period of general instability, with a population more concerned with survival than intellectual pursuits.
 * The dominant Church established laws and norms which were influenced by religious mysticism and discouraged scientific inquiry, as it was often inconsistent with biblical teaching.

While Europe remained stagnant, the nearby Islamic Empire scientifically flourished.
 * Islamic scientists took great efforts to preserve and translate Ancient Greek texts, which included much work in science and natural philosophy that had effectively been “lost” to Europeans.
 * Latin translations of these Arabic and Greek writings made their way to Europe through contact with the Islamic Empire through the Crusades and trade.

The Protestant Reformation weakened the Catholic Church's power and influence.
 * It encouraged scientific inquiry by changing man's view on the relationship between God and nature, encouraging laity to explore in for themselves.
 * Shortly after Martin Luther, the Renaissance encouraged realism in art, a rebirth of ancient Greek ideals, and thus a study in nature. It encouraged an atmosphere of observation and inquiry.
 * These influences and others encouraged man to observe and develop new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences.
 * The scientific method gave man an organized process to ask questions, develop hypotheses, and use experiment to test and develop theories. Scientists of this era debunked many long-held assumptions about the world and developed theories and frameworks which we use and hold as truth in the modern world.

// "The long term effects of both the Scientific Revolution and the modern acceptance and dependence upon science can be felt today in our daily lives. And notwithstanding some major calamity -- science and the scientific spirit will be around for centuries to come." (History Guide Online: The Scientific Revolution 1543-1600). //

//"The exciting discoveries of this period--the heliocentric universe, the development of the scientific method, the use of mathematics, advances in medicine and chemistry--need to be part of every student's historical understanding. These discoveries did not just happen; it took struggle against older notions and assumptions for newer ideas to emerge." (Lesson From History, National Center for History in the Schools, 1992, p. 261).//

A Collection of Primary Sources, works by figures of the Scientific Revolution, from Fordham University.


 * Teaching the Scientific Revolution, a website developed by Robert A. Hatch at the University of Florida providing resources for teachers and students.
 * Scientific Revolution - Activity Plan, from Ohio State University History Teaching Institute.
 * Galileo's Dialogue, an activity focused on using Scientific Method and Galileo's theories.
 * 6, 7, & 8 grade lesson plan on Scientific revolution. This focus on primary source analysis.

Name That Scientific Revolutionary Game

=The Scientific Method=

The scientific method is a procedure scientists use to study the world around them without bias or cultural influences. The user first identifies a question or a problem, formulates an idea about why this occurs, performs experiments to test the hypothesis, records the data, and analyzes the findings. Prior to the scientific method in Europe, conclusions were drawn based on interpretation, and scientists did not perform experiments to tests their ideas.

With the creation of this systemic method of testing and re-testing a hypotheses, we gain a more accurate understanding of the natural world, and have a framework to continually challenge and improve upon a theory. The method also eliminates cultural bias, an element that was of particular importance in Europe when the Church held the highest power.

Francis Bacon is generally credited with inventing the scientific method, with Descartes, Galileo and Newton refining and using it the way we know it today. However, Aristotle made the first steps toward it by using empirical evidence and logical reasoning. During the height of the Islamic Empire, Islamic scientists used a system very similar to what we call the scientific method today. The Arab scientist and philosopher Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was influenced by Aristotle, used experimentation, and even insisted on creating replicable data in his experiments. Alhazen's biography is available here

Listen to this [|rap] that summarizes the Scientific Method!

Worksheet for students to practice their knowledge of the Scientific method. (Good worksheet to be done in pairs and then come back together as a class to share examples)

**Go to World History I.5 for more on the Golden Age of Islamic Civilization and the contributions of Islamic scholars**

=Leading Figures of the Scientific Revolution=

//"Thinkers such as the Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650) and the British mathematician <span class="wiki_link_ext">Isaac Newton (1642-1727) overturned the authority of the Middle Ages and the classical world. And by authority I am not referring specifically to that of the Church -- the demise of its authority was already well under way even before the Lutheran Reformation had begun. The authority I am spe////aking of is intellectual in nature and consisted of the triad of **<span class="wiki_link_ext">Aristotle ** (384-322), <span class="wiki_link_ext">Ptolemy (c.90-168) and Galen(c.130-201).// (History Guide Online: The Scientific Revolution 1543-1600).

Make it more fun with a [|baseball card activity] to help students learn and remember the leading figures of the scientific revolution. After the cards are made maybe there could be a draft of "players" to see what the world (team) would be like without them! [|Biography of Aristotle]

More on Aristotle's contribution in this article on the beginning of science and philosophy in Athens by Michael Fowler of UVA.

For an abbreviated timeline of Scientific Revolution discoveries, click here

**Francis Bacon **( Jan. 22,1561- April 9,1626)
Biography of [|Bacon]

[|Biography of Bacon in video form] <span style="font-family: Helvetica,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: normal;">

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">Bacon was a lawyer, philosopher and statesman with a passion for science. He is credited with creating the <span class="wiki_link_ext">Scientific Method, which was meant to replace the Aristotelian methods which dominated scientific thought of the time. Bacon aimed to create a methodology which relied on experiment and empirical evidence, and he expounded upon this in his most famous work, [|//Novum Organum//]. He felt that carefully organized experiments and systematic, thorough observations would lead to correct general principles, which in turn would lead to new discoveries.

//<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">"The true and lawful goal of the sciences is none other than this: that human life be endowed with new discoveries and power." Novum Organum.//

[|Nicolas Copernicus](February 19**,** 1473 **–** May 24**,** 1543**)**


<span class="wiki_link_ext">Biography of Copernicus

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">Copernicus is considered a founder of modern astronomy. He developed the [|system]stating that the Earth was not the center of the universe, but that the universe was heliocentric and the planets all revolved around the sun in circular orbits around a stationary sun. Before the Copernican system, people believed in the Ptolemaic system which held earth to be at the center of the universe.

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">The beliefs of the times were human-centric, and Copernicus' theories went against the teachings of the powerful Church. However, Copernicus died before he could be brought to trial for his theory. Galileo and others later embraced the Copernican system and suffered persecution as heretics for it. Though the model is not completely correct, the legacy of Copernicus of one of challenging the status quo and the assumption that man is the literal center of the world.

//"[Nicolaus Copernicus is] an upstart astrologer…. This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us that Joshua commanded the sun to////stand still, and not the earth." –Martin Luther (attributed), as quoted in Daniel Boorstin, __The Discoverers__ (1983), p. 302//

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">. Selection from [|The Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies] (1543).

[|Video] outlining the origins of the geocentric and heliocentric models with diagrams to show the differences.

Rene Descartes (March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650)
<span class="wiki_link_ext">Biography of Descartes

[[image:resourcesforhistoryteachers/descarte.jpg width="179" height="236" align="right"]]
Descartes was a philosopher and mathematician who is known as the father of modern philosophy. His interests in mathematics was focused on methods, and he examined how ancient mathematicians like Euclid came about their discoveries. One of his greatest philosophical and scientific works was //Discourse on Method//, where he expounds on rationalism and its application to science. Intead of asking "what is true," he asks "what can be proven?" By choosing to write //Discourse// in French rather than Latin, Descartes was directing his work at anyone literate in the spoken language rather than just academics.

Descartes wrote a number of works where he applied his method of rationality and made a number of discoveries in the fields of optics, physiology, physics, and mathematics. He is also considered the father of analytical geometry, which provides the basis for Newton's calculus. Discourse on Method

Galileo Galilei ( February 15, 1564, January 8, 1642)
<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px;">
 * <span class="wiki_link_ext" style="font-size: 13px;">[[image:Quill_and_ink.png]]Biography of Galileo **

//"...The book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and read the letters in which it is composed. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one wanders about in a dark labyrinth."// -Galileo's //The Assayer//

**<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px;">Galileo was a mathematician, astronomer, physicist and philosopher who was one of the first scientists to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. Einstein referred to him as "the Father of Modern Science." He made great improvements to the telescope and was the first astronomer to use it for observing the sky. ** These observations allowed him to observe the moons of Jupiter, which led him to belief that not everything revolved around earth. Observations on the phases of Venus further proved a heliocentric universe rather than earth centric. He also

performed many experiments on the motion of bodies. His findings directly influenced Newton's three laws of motion and debunked the previously held belief that heavier objects fell faster than lighter ones.

**<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px;">Galileo was persecuted by the Catholic Church for his belief in the Copernican heliocentric theory of the universe and the idea that the universe was made up of matter like the earth. These ideas threatened the concept that beyond the earth are the heavens for spiritual purposes, not other worlds. The Church saw Galileo's discovery as a contradiction to the Church, and he was put on trial for treason. **

[|Opposition] to Galileo's support of Copernican heliocentric theory Click here for Galileo's [|Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems] (1632); translated by Stillman Drake.
 * Visit NOVA's site with more information and resources, Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. Includes interactives on his experiments with falling objects, projectiles, inclined planes, and pendulums.
 * [|"Galileo in a Nutshell"]
 * <span style="font-family: Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">This clip clearly describes the scientific contributions of Galileo, particularly his refutation of Aristotle’s view that science can be explained simply through logic, and his support of Copernicus’ heliocentric model

Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630)


<span class="wiki_link_ext">Click here for a biography of Kepler

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">Kepler was a mathematician and astronomer. He refined Copernicus' theory and used the scientific method to prove the heliocentric universe idea to be true, and published his three [|laws of planetary motion.], including the discovery that planets moved in elliptical orbits rather than perfect circles.

[|Interactive simulation of Kepler's Third Law] which states that <span class="_Tgc _s8w">the average distance of a planet from the Sun cubed is directly proportional to the orbital period squared.

These laws are still considered true today, 500 years later, and Isaac Newton used them in his analysis of gravity in the groundbreaking Principia Mathematica.

Link to this [|video] as it portrays Kepler's three laws of planetary motion

<span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">Link here for an interactive look at Kepler's laws of planetary motion

Sir Isaac Newton (January 4,1643 – March 31,1727)
<span class="wiki_link_ext"> Bbiography of [|Newton.] Watch this video on the Scientific Revolution. It tells us how Newton was an alchemist before he was a physicist.



Newton was an English mathematician, physicist and philosopher. In the first book he wrote, //Principia//, he discussed his three laws of motion:
 * __**First Law:**__ Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.
 * See video on Newton's First Law of Motion from Kahn Academy
 * __**Second Law**:__ The relationship between an object's mass //m//, its acceleration a, and the applied force //F// is //F = ma//. Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by their symbols being displayed in slant bold font); in this law the direction of the force vector is the same as the direction of the acceleration vector.
 * __**Third Law**:__ For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

[|Interactive demonstration] of the three laws. Newton formulated many theories on mechanics, made great discoveries in the field of optics with color and light, and invented calculus. He also developed a theory in chemistry whereby elements were made of a collection of atoms.

Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology as a set of four rules for scientific reasoning.
 * These rules were stated in the //Principia// and proposed that
 * (1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances,
 * (2) the same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes,
 * (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal, and
 * (4) propositions deduced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them. (Wolfram Research: "Newton, Isaac."

[[image:womens history.jpg width="46" height="51"]]Women in the Scientific Revolution
Men were not the only people involved in the great discoveries of the Scientific Revolution! Many women made contributions as well, but due to the rigid gender lines of the time, they were often not recognized for their achievements.

Below is a list o f female contributors to the Scientific Revolution with links to their biographies. Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673): Margaret Cavendish was a British natural philosopher who helped to make some of the major ideas of the Scientific Revolution popular. Cavendish published two books on areas she felt were lacking in terms of discoveries and also advocated for a larger female presence in science as well as better education for girls.

Khan Academy description of Margaret Cavendish's contributions [|Part 1] and [|Part 2].

Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720): Maria Winkelmann was a German astronomer who worked with her husband, Gottfried Kirch developing astronomical calendars. Since female scientists were not respected at the time, Winkelmann acted as his assistant even though she was actually his co-worker. In 1702, Winkelmann became the first woman to discover a comet.

Maria Sibylla Merian(1647-1717): Maria Sibylla Merian was a German botanist and zoologist who created an illustrated book of specimens of European insects, moths, and butterflies. In 1672, Merian traveled to Suriname (Dutch South Africa) with only a female companion and collected specimens there which she later published into her noteworthy // Dissertation in Insect Generations and Metamorphosis in Surinam. //

See also, [|Maria Sibylla Merian: Scientific Butterfly] [|Gabrielle Emilie Du Chatelet] (1706-49) Gabrielle Emilie Du Chatelet was a French Mathematician and Physicist.
 * Despite most likely being almost entirely self educated, her 1740 writing known as the "Foundations of Physics" gained her significant notoriety and she became an accepted member of the "Republic of Letters".
 * She would later be known for besting an acclaimed director at the "Academy of Sciences" by finding a more proper formula for Kinetic Energy. Perhaps her most notorious contribution Physics was her corrections on Galileo's hypotheses.

=
[|Rosalind Franklin] was an <span style="font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 12pt;">English Chemist from 1920-1958 who made contributions to the understanding of the molecular structure of DNA, RNA, and viruses. She is best known for her work on X-ray diffraction images of DNA which led to the discovery of the DNA double Helix ===== Click [|here] for more information on Rosalind Franklin

This is an interesting [|link] as it explains how Rosalind Franklin did not receive credit or a Noble Peace Prize for her work on DNA.


 * The Untold Stories of Women in Science and Technology: Let's Write Them into History**

Grace Hopper, Computing Pioneer

Elizabeth Blackwell, first woman physician in the United States

Helen Keller, Political Activist

Ada Lovelace

Beatrice Potter

Hedy Lamarr

Mary Anning

Margaret Sanger (resourcesforhistoryteachers)

** Black Scientists in the 19th and 20th Centuries **
This article gives brief descriptions of black scientists.

=**TEST Question**=

1) The Scientific Revolution contributed to Enlightenment thought by introducing people to A) Believe in the power of human reason B) Reject belief in the organized church C) Study the ideas of past civilization D) Oppose individuality in favor of social order

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Answer: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1) A //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Source: California Standards Test Questions (http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/sr/documents/rtqgr8history.pdf) //

__**Works Cited**__ <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">"Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: An Intellectual Revolution in the West." In //The Essential World History: Comprehensive Volume//, by William J. Duker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, 408-427. Dovetail Publishing Services, 200

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Weisstein, Eric W. "Newon, Isaac (1642-1727). Science World. Wolfram Research. http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html. Accessed 2/24/13.

__**Links**__ http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture10c.html http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/index.htm http://cnx.org/content/m13245/latest/